World Myths

Compiled by: Marco Roncagliolo

Hindu Mythology

(Source: AncientHistoryLists)

The Hindu mythology provides several accounts on how exactly the creation of the universe took place. The answers themselves delve into varying degrees of complexity since there have been different approaches at separate instances of time. Perhaps the most popular of approach states that the highest of deities were oblivious to their own presence before the existence of time itself. Before the creation, there was no time, no heaven or earth or the space in between. There was the dark ocean that washed into the shores of nothingness.

In another depiction, it all started with the enunciation of a sacred sound Oom (Aum). The ancient Hindu scriptures state that the ultimate reality (Brahman) has three main functions. These three characteristics are inhibited by the trinity of gods – Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. That is why we can see images where the heads of the trinity are merged together into a single body – the Trimurti. In the Trimurti, Brahma is the creator of everything. Vishnu is the preserver of nature. Shiva is ultimate destroyer who brings about change whenever it becomes necessary.

It represents the second age in the cycle of Maha Yuga. The Hindu scripts state that Treta Yuga spans over a period of 1,296,000 human years. By the advent of Treta Yuga, the presence of satva (goodness) in human nature had slowly started to diminish. Whatever amount of goodness they retained in their virtue was now accompanied by ever increasing amount of Tamas and rajas. Tamas represented the darkness in human nature and rajas constituted of all the passion a human could conjure. By now, people had nurtured an acute level of intellect, but they had also lost a good deal of control over their body and its physiology.

The body stature was now lesser than that in the Satya yuga – an average human was around 14 cubits tall, but there were some exceptional beings who had attained godly built and divine persona. To name some, the likes of Rama, Laxamana, Ravana and Hanumana were considered godlike for their extraordinary strength and inimitable intellect.

Dwapar Yuga represents the third age in succession right after Treta Yuga. Also known as the Bronze age, the Dwapar yuga is said to last for 864,000 human years. It represents an age where the goodness and evil in human nature are neck in neck. Since the human body loses a substantial amount of purity (satva), people attain a far greater control over their body than their intellect. By the time Dwapar yuga was its peak, the man had already lost control over his innermost body and knowledge. He became more attracted to the materialistic perspective of the world, succumbing to his ever increasing desires. Only the very intellectuals like Bhisma, Dharmaraja and Vidura were able to escape this allure. Eventually, there was a gradual decline in the moral fiber of society. People with enormous physicality became increasingly offensive in their thirst of desire and power. The average human lifespan had also come down to 1000 years.

The last age in ever repeating cycle of Maha Yuga is the Kali Yuga. It also happens to have the shortest span that lasts for 432,000 human years. The current tim1e period falls under Kali Yuga – also referred to as the Iron Age. As the name already suggests, Kali Yuga witnesses hypocrisy and instability like never before. Human nature is significantly corrupted by the temptations of sin and only a fickle of conscience remains.

The human body is at its lowest in terms of physicality and intellect. An average man is only 3.5 cubits tall and lives for around 100 to 120 years. Citing the ancient Hindu scripts, it is estimated that around 5000 years of Kali Yuga have already passed by. It is also predicted that when Kali Yuga reaches its dying years, the lifespan of man will be no more than 20 years. This age has been majorly highlighted by man’s unprecedented longing for materialism. In a stark contrast to previous ages, human lives have been convoluted by ignorance and the connection to one’s inner self has been lost.

Curses have long and rather intriguing history in different mythologies. Now, the Hindu gods rarely cursed for they wielded power mighty enough to inflict whatever suffering they wished upon others. But still, there were many instances where some unique curses worth mentioning have been given in Hindu mythology. In the epic of Mahabharata, the Pandavas were hit my immense sorrow on realizing Karna was their half-brother all along. They had only just killed him in the battle. An enraged Yudhisthara could not believe their mother Kunti would keep such personal information from them. So, he cursed that no woman then1 on, shall be able to keep any secrets from others.

Then, there is the curse on Pandu that if he ever approaches a woman with feelings of desire, he shall die on the spot. Probably, the most notable of them is when Gandhari cursed Lord Krishna in the aftermath of Mahabharata. After having defeated the Kauravas (killing all one hundred sons of Gandhari), he went to console a distraught mother. On seeing Krishna, Gandhari cursed that no one in Krishna’s bloodline shall live to see future generations. And just like the Kauravas bloodline was terminated, all of Krishna’s family killed each other in due time. Krishna died an untimely death with no one left to continue his bloodline.




Hinduism is quite unlike other traditional religions – it did not originate from a single founder or some sacred scripture or at a particular point in time. Hinduism is an amalgamation of different beliefs, traditions and philosophies. These different viewpoints are usually at contradiction with each other. So naturally, there are different theories on the origin of the world’s oldest religion. The first mention on its foundation can be traced back to the earliest of the writings of ancient Hindu sages or Rishis. But again, even these sacred writings were originally enunciated orally.

The earliest traces of practices that resembled Hindu traditions can be tracked back to ancient India around 5500 BCE. It is unclear if the tradition had any specific nomenclature back then. The term Hindu originated only during the Mughal era in contemporary India. Hinduism became a popular reference only during 19th-20th century, when English colonial rule saw rapid expansion in India. Evidences also show that an ascetic God named Siva was popularly worshipped in the Indus Valley civilization around 3000 BCE. The greatest of all epics Mahabharata was written somewhere in the period of  400 BCE and 200 CE. It gave immense insight into Hindu mythology in the form of Bhagavad Gita along with other historically crucial texts. https://www.ancienthistorylists.com/india-history/top-10-interesting-hindu-mythology/

Main Characters

(Source: Tour My India)

The Rig-Veda explains the concept of Brahma as a word that was used for deciphering a sacred mysterious power that helped create the world. In one amongst the many legends of Hindu Mythology, Brahma has been said to have been born of a golden egg that the Supreme Soul and Self-Existent Lord created by depositing water of the earth in a seed. Another text says that Brahma became a boar who raised the earth from the waters, and thus, created the world. He is also described as a fish or a tortoise at the beginning of the ages. Brahma is also believed to have been born from a lotus springing from the navel of another popular Hindu God, Vishnu.

Lord Brahma is said to have four faces that represent the four Vedas; and he has four hands that represent the four directions, each of the hand holds one object like a rosary (mala), a water-pot (kamandal), a book (the Vedas), and a lotus. It is believed that the rosary that he carries represent eternal time, whereas, the water-pot denotes that the world was created by water. Lord Brahma can be seen seated on a large lotus and is reckoned to use a swan as his vehicle. It is to be noted that swan is a symbol of knowledge.

Lord Vishnu, in Hindu Mythology, is reckoned to have been vested with the quality of permanence, continuity, and preservation. In the Rig Veda, Vishnu, is associated with Sun. He is also believed to be the essential part of the Trinity, i.e. Brahma, Vishnu, Mahesh. However, he has been recognized as God with numerous incarnations including the popular ones that of Lord Rama and Lord Krishna. He also took on the attributes of several deities in varied forms of animals like fish (Matsya), tortoise(Kurma), and the boar(Varaha); and eventually these diverse elements were reduced to the group of twenty-four Vishnu incarnations. The Man-Lion (Narasimha), the Dwarf (Vamana), Parashurama, Rama and Krishna along with the aforementioned ones were the major incarnations of Lord Vishnu.

Lord Vishnu is blue in color and is believed to have four or more hands. He is dressed in yellow attire and is shown holding a wheel that represents the Universal Mind and the powers of creation and destruction; and a conch-shell, which is said to be associated with the inception of existence through its spiral form and its connection with water. This popular Hindu God is also seen holding the club which denotes authority or the strength of wisdom as the essence of life. The vehicle of Vishnu is Garuda/eagle, which is reckoned to be half-man and half-bird.

Often associated with salvation, Lord Shiva is the part of holy Trinity of Brahma, Vishnu, Mahesh (Shiva). He is also known as the destroyer, a meditator, and is associated with austerity; the one who dwells alone in the Himalayas and in the crematory grounds. Where Lord Vishnu is believed to have manifested himself through various incarnations, God Shiva is reckoned to have shown different aspects of his own powers and that of his consort. Even though this famous Indian mythological character has a form and a shape, he is worshipped frequently in his Lingam (Phallic) form which represents the power of procreation and regeneration. Lord Shiva is multifaceted, and Aghora (in which he resides in the cremation grounds); Ishana (Shivalingam); Tat Purush (meditator), Varna Deva (eternally auspicious); Sadyajot or Braddha Rudra (old wrathful) are some of his forms. Thus he is amongst the most popular Hindu deities in India, and it is probably his mysterious and unique ways that fascinate the devotees; in fact, one can witness narration of Shivpuran Katha on a massive scale, around the globe for spiritual bliss and awareness to walk on the righteous path.

Shiva is a three-eyed God, he has long matted hair that holds holy River Ganga. On one side of his, a crescent moon is placed. He has four hands, with which he holds a triden, a ‘damru,’ an axe and an antelope. As clothes, he wraps himself in tiger skin and is often seen smeared with ash. His head, neck and arms has a snake coiled around and his throat is blue, due to drinking the poison during the churning of the ocean by the gods. He is also shown wearing a garland of skulls. His vehicle is the bull called Nandi.

Rama literally means ‘Brahman’, someone who has supreme cosmic powers. Reckoned to be the seventh avatar/incarnation of Lord Vishnu, who marked his presence in the Treta Yuga. He is also known as Purushottam, which translates to the best of all men or Supreme Personality. Lord Rama is considered the embodiment of truth, of morality, the ideal son, husband and king. His noble character has been depicted well in the epics Ramayana by Valmiki and Ramcharitramanas by Tulsidas. In recent times, various Hindu Sansthans/Groups/Communities hold, on a large scale narration of Sri Rama Katha to instill spirituality in the masses and guide them on the path of righteousness.

In appearance, Lord Rama is said to have a dark complexion (black/blue), he has two hands, and in his right hand is a bana (arrow), while he is seen holding the Dhanush(bow) in his left hand which is bent in ‘S’ shape. At most places, Lord Rama is seen with his wife, Sita on the right side and brother, Lakshmana on the left.

The One Who Knows the Sixty-Four Arts, Lord Krishna is recognized as the eighth incarnation of Vishnu and is probably the favorite most and famous Hindu mythological character. Krishna’s journey on earth is considered an appropriate reflection of different stages of life of the human race, i.e, childhood, adolescence and adulthood, and the challenges they undergo. Although, this Vishnu’s avatar had a specific purpose to serve, but Lord Krishna’s distinct personality created a difference of opinion between two schools of thought that questioned the original relationship between these two popular Hindu Gods. There are plenty of incidents and narratives that determine the might of Lord Krishna, however, his mischiefs as a child and as an adult can make him a popular Indian mythological characters for kids. His Leelas with Gopi are well preserved in Shrimad Bhagvat Mahapurana, whereas, his important life teachings can be found in the illustrious Shrimad Bhagavad Gita. In recent times, endeavors to convey knowledge of the legacy of Shri Krishna to the masses are made by organizing Shrimad Bhagwat Katha by Hindu Sansthans across the world.

Before the cosmic creation, Goddess Durga was evoked by Lord Shiva from his left half to be the part of his Shivlok. Durga is a female energy that defeated the demon Mahishasura who was creating havoc on earth. It is believed that Goddess Durga is the same energy (ray) that came out of the mouth of Lord Vishnu and merged with rays emitted by other gods. She is a pure form of energy and is also referred to as the ‘Shakti’ of the Impersonal Absolute. This popular Hindu mythology goddess is also worshipped in 9 different avataars like that of Kushmanda, Chandraghanta, Brahmcharini, Shailputri, Skandamata, Katyayani, Kalaratri, Mahagauri, and Mahakali during the Durga Puja. Goddess Durga in Indian mythology is also believed to be the consort of Lord Shiva in the form of Parvati.

Goddess Durga has eight hands, which hold a trident, a sword, a snake, a bell, a drum, a shield, a cup, a bow, a wheel, a conch-shell, a mace, an arrow and a water pot. She is shown wearing a garland of skulls and seated in a yogic/sukhasana posture on double lotus or on a tiger/lion.

A symbol of beauty, fertility, and auspiciousness, Goddess Lakshmi remain an important Hindu mythological character. Reckoned to be the provider of wealth, she is said to be the daughter of Sage Bhrigu and consort of Lord Vishnu. One of the mythological stories confirms that this Hindu Goddess resurrected to life during the epic churning of the ocean. An ardent devotee of Lord Shiva, the goddess is also associated with God Kuber and Indra. Her other names include Manushri, Chakrika, Kamalika, Aishwarya, Lalima, Kalyani, Nandika, Rujula, Vaishnavi, Samruddhi, Narayani, Bhargavi, Sridevi, Chanchala, Jalaja, Madhavi, Sujata, Shreya. Also, she has been referred to as Jaganmaatha or the Mother of the Universe in Shri Mahalakshmi Ashtakam.

The much revered Hindu Goddess, Lakshmi has four hands (when sown individually), however, only hands of her are shown when she with Vishnu. A lotus in each of her upper hands; gold coins dropping down from the palms of her lower two hands can be seen in many of her illustrations. She is also depicted in golden colour and seated or standing on a lotus with two elephants, partially submerged in water, one on each side.

Reckoned to be the connoisseur of knowledge, music, arts, wisdom and the learning, Goddess Saraswati is an integral part of Hindu mythology and that of the sacred trinity of Lakshmi, Parvati and Saraswati. Goddess Saraswati is said to be the consort of Lord Brahma, and along with goddess Lakshmi and Parvati, she contributes in creating, maintaining and destroying the universe. In fact the trio is considered to be of great assistance to the male trinity of Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahesh. Saraswati is also considered the daughter of Lord Brahma of whom she was born out of the mouth, hence, she became the goddess of speech, music and knowledge. Although, the Vedas describe Saraswati as a river.

Goddess Saraswati’s image is of a beautiful female, who is milk white in complexion and is dressed in white saree as well. She is often shown standing/sitting on a water lily. Her illustration also displays of her with four hands, and with one of her hands she is presenting a lotus to Brahma. In another hand, she can be seen holding a book of palm leaves representing learning; while in her two left hands she has a string of pearls and a small vase. She is often shown, playing a Veena.

The Remover of Obstacles, Lord Ganesha, is quite a famous Hindu deity in India, especially in Maharashtra. Considered auspicious and ideally the first god revered by the Hindu devotees while beginning a journey or initiating something new, Ganesha is also the god of wisdom, and the guardian deity. Popularly held to be the son of Lord Shiva and Goddess Parvati, Lord Ganesha has an interesting story regarding his head, which is of an elephant. The legend has it, that on refusing to let Lord Shiva meet Goddess Parvati while she was taking a bath, Shiva decapitated Ganesha in anger, and then to placate Parvati he promised to replace the head with the first thing he would find in the forest; which happened to be an elephant. Another legend reveal different aspect of the story, in which Lord Shiva after decapitating Ganesha ordered other celestial being to get the head of anything that they find at first; which again is reckoned to be an elephant. However, the legend further says that while taking off the head of the elephant’s, its tusk broke, and thus, often Ganesha is depicted with a broken tusk.

Lord Ganesha has a head of an elephant, four to ten arms, a round belly, and is usually red or yellow in colour. In his hands, a rope, an axe, a goad, a dish of sweet-balls is mostly shown. However, Ganesha has four prime manifestations and each differs from the other. According to Ganesha Puran, his manifestation of Mahakota Vinayaka has ten hands, and he is seen riding a lion. The Shri Mayuresh manifestation has him in a lighter complexion, with and riding a peacock. His Shri Gajaanana manifestation has four hands, a crimson complexion and he can be seen riding a mouse. Whereas, his Shri Dhoomraketu form has two hands, grayish complexion and his vehicle is a horse. Altogether, Lord Ganesha is believed to have 32 manifestation, of which the major ones are Vakratunda (riding a lion), Ekadanta (the one-toothed one), Mahodara, Gajaanana, Lambodara (riding on a mouse), Vikata (on a peacock), Vighnaraja (riding on the serpent Sesha), Dhoomra Varna, like Shiva, Vighnesh (remover of obstacles), Modakpriya (one who loves sweets), and Ganapati (head of the semi-divine Ganas).

Quintessentially brave, intelligent and perfection personified, Lord Kartikeya gets his share of fame and reverence mostly from South India, where he is also known by the name of Shanmukha, Murugan, Subhramaniam, Shadanan, Guha, Senthil, Saravana, Kumaraswamy and Skanda. Held to be the son of Lord Shiva and Goddess Parvati and the sibling of Lord Ganesha, this popular Hindu mythological character in South India is associated with chivalry and the destruction of negativity and demons, thus worshipping him can protect one from woes and worries.

Kartikeya is said to have six heads as Shadanan, denoting five senses and the mind. In his hand is an axe, which is called Shakti as it has been endowed with power by his mother, Parvati. Kartikeya can be seen riding on a peacock that has a serpent clutched in one of its claws.

Depicted as an epitome of loyalty and unconditional devotion. He is amongst the major characters in the epic Ramayana, where is seen as a mighty and zealous warrior who helps Lord Rama to win the battle between him and Ravana. His chivalrous episodes of burning down Lanka with his tail and bringing the entire mountain from Himalaya to all the way down south determine his strong personality. He is believed to be the son of Vayu, the wind god, and Anjana, an Apsara who had transformed into a monkey due to a curse. It is also said that Lord Hanuman received the ability to fly from his father. He has also been associated with Brahmacharya/celibacy.

Lord Hanuman is shown with one head, two arms and a long tail that is looped over his head. He has a face of a monkey that is placed on a well built human body. There are other forms of Hanuman as well that include one with ten arms and five heads that of a Garuda (half man, half bird), a boar, a horse and a man-lion, representing the five most important avatars of Vishnu.

The ‘Divine Architect of the World,’ Vishwakarma is a personification of creative power in Hindu mythology. He is also reckoned to be the official craftsmen of the flying chariots and palaces of all the celestial beings. Vishwakarma is said to be the son of Brahma, and in Rig Veda, he has been described as the god with multi-dimensional vision and supreme strength. He is considered the creator of Triloka, and that of Lanka and Dwarka. Legend has it that this Hindu God also built Hastinapur and Indraprastha in the Kali Yuga, also there is a belief that the famous temple in India, Jagannath in Puri had been made by Lord Vishwakarma.

Vishkarma is seen with a bright white complexion with a club in his right hand and tools in his left hand. He has a crown on his head, a necklace of gold, and rings on his wrists. The other hands of Vishwakarma hold a water-pot, a book, a noose and craftsman’s tools.

Goddess Parvati in her Durga and Kali avatar/incarnations is worshipped across India. The consort of Shiva, she is the symbol of strength, determination and devotion. She is known by different names like Lalita, Uma, Gauri, Kali, Durga, Haimavati and as the mother of the universe, she is known as Amba and Ambika. As Lalita, she represents the aspect of beauty. She is also related to fertility and is said to be the reincarnation of Sati, who Lord Shiva was married to. Goddess Parvati’s loyalty, penance, and her dedication towards her family and devotees have been considered as her highest virtues.

When shown with Lord Shiva, Goddess Parvati can be seen with two hands, the right one holding a blue lotus and the left hanging loose. However, when represented alone, this famous Hindu Goddess in India can be seen with four hands, two of which hold red and blue lotuses and the other two exhibiting the varada and Abhaya mudras.

Reckoned to be the dispeller of darkness, healer of diseases, and illuminator of the world, God Surya remains an important character of Hindu Sanatan Dharm. Surya is known by several names like Vivasat (Brilliant), Savitr (Nourisher), Bhaskara (Light Maker), Dinakara (Daymaker), Lokacaksuh (Eye of the World), Grahraja (King of the Constellations), Sahasrakirana (of 1000 Rays). One of the legends of Hindu Sanatan Dharm claims that Surya is the son of Kashyapa (A Vedic sage) and Aditi (Infinite Heavens). It is believed that Vishwakarma made several weapons from the blazing flames of Surya like that of discus of Lord Vishnu, lance of Kartikeya, club of Kuber and trident of Lord Shiva. Surya was first mentioned in the Rig Veda and then was represented as a door relief in 2nd century BCE. He is worshipped in many forms but two of the most common forms of the deity are Arka and Mitra, where Arka is worshipped in North and Eastern India; Mitra is found mostly in Gujarat.

Surya, one of the most important deities of Vedas is shown with a lotus in each hand and seated in a chariot that is drawn across the heavens by seven horses or one horse with seven heads. He is also shown with four hands, three of which carry a wheel, a conch-shell and a lotus and the fourth in a protective mode. His chariot is seen drawn by his charioteer Aruna, the god of dawn.

Recognized as a God of Rain and Thunder, Indra, in the Vedic period was depicted as the protector of cows and king of the gods. He is believed to be benevolent and generous to his devotees, he is said to bless them with peace and prosperity and sending rainstorms to end droughts. Indra has also been the part of Buddhist, Cham and Chinese tradition. He is said to be have born from the mouth of the primordial god or giant Purusha who is also called the progenitor of other members of the Hindu pantheon. In Indian mythology, Indra is said to be the one fighting in the storm with the demons who try to steal the celestial cows in the form of clouds. In addition, Indra is said to have ultimate control over the universe, and that he balanced earth on his palm. He also reckoned to be the creator of rivers and streams.

Indra is shown with four hands, in one of which he holds a thunderbolt and in others a conch-shell, a bow and arrows, a hook and a net. He is sometimes shown with only two hands and eyes all over his body, and is called ‘the thousand-eyed one’. His vehicle is an elephant, Airavat, who is white in colour and has four tusks. https://www.tourmyindia.com/blog/famous-mythological-characters-hindu-sanatan-dharma/

Four Women Characters in Hindu Myths

(Source: Amarnathan, V, Dailyo)

She is blessed with the ability to bear only male children who are guaranteed to become conquerors. What's more, she can restore her virginity after each delivery! Her story begins when Galava offers to pay his guru, Vishwamitra, a gurudakshina, and the latter asks for 800 white horses with black ears. When Galava approaches Yayati (a king) for the 800 horses, he hands over his daughter Madhavi instead. Since he doesn't have the horses himself, he asks Galava to marry off Madhavi to a king who can offer him 800 white horses. But no king has 800 white horses with black ears so Galava exchanges Madhavi for 200 horses with three different kings and then hands her over to Vishwamitra along with 600 horses. She is to be kept in lieu of the other 200 horses.

Everything with this story sounds unfair. Madhavi, like many other characters, was treated as property to be traded and her sole purpose was to bear children and that too only male. She is surprisingly hailed as a strong character because she renounces everything in the end and becomes a sanyasini. How is that strength? It would have been strength if she had refused to listen to her father in the first place. Madhavi does not show that she has a mind of her own and keeps bearing atrocity after atrocity. The concept of consent doesn't feature here and her womb is literally peddled.

Sita is hailed as another pure and righteous woman. She follows her husband, Rama, when he is exiled to the forest, but is abducted by Ravana when she is tricked into crossing the Lakshman rekha. This leads to the battle of Ramayan in which Rama defeats Ravana. When a pregnant Sita returns to Ayodhya with her husband after 14 years, the people of Ayodhya question the lineage of the unborn children. Sita takes a test to prove her purity, but later chooses to quit everything and return to her mother, the earth, rather than being the queen of Ayodhya.

What's outrageous here is not just her abduction but the fact that she chose to go through with proving her chastity although it wasn't her fault. Above all, the whole concept of a lakshman rekha drawn by someone younger to her shows where she stands in the hierarchy of things despite being a Goddess. And should she cross it, there shall be questions on her very character.




Draupadi, as is well-known, is played and lost in a game of dice much like an object. She is publically disrobed by the Kauravas who were angered when she laughed at them and called Duryodhana "the blind son of a blind man". She's probably the only character in mythology to have shown her anger and successfully wrecked vengeance, but in the end, Draupadi loses everything and ends up sad and lost. She is also the first to fall and go to hell when the Pandavas climb the Himalayas. Again there is nothing strong about this character who was shared by five men (as if she is an object) none of whom could protect her from the Kauravas.




The wife of sage Gautam, Ahalya was one of the "most beautiful" women. So much so that Indra had his eyes on her. He takes the form of Gautam and seduces her. On knowing what transpired, the sage curses Ahalya to live for the rest of her life as a stone until Vishnu himself graces her by placing his feet on her. Ahalya's penance is considered exemplary. But come to think of it, she hardly had a voice. She was raped and punished for the rape. Indra was punished too for his crime. He is cursed with a thousand vulvae on his body and loses his testicles. But after performing penance, these are converted to a thousand eyes. While Indra renews himself, Ahalya simply rejoins her husband after penance.

Each of these stories show how patriarchy reduces the character of a woman to the number of sexual partners she has, and her purpose to child-bearing. The obsession with knowing the lineage of offspring, virginity and the narrow definition of character led to the imposition of restrictions on women and artificially stunted their status. And much of this continues today.

Even now, the way to seek revenge for many is to rape someone's sister or wife because somehow they are "property" and their sexual chastity is synonymous with the honour of the family. Either that or women are punished for crossing imaginary lines imposed by the society — it could be something as small as being out with a friend as in the case of Nirbhaya. (https://www.dailyo.in/politics/indian-mythology-rape-women-patriarchy/story/1/17120.html)

Chinese Mythology

Main Stories

(Source: AncientHistoryList)

The earliest Chinese mythologies contain many stories of many wondrous rulers of ancient times; however there are no creation stories. The story of Panku (aks Pangu) is probably the closest Chinese version of a creation myth. Pangu is the central figure in Chinese Daoist legends of creation. Pangu—the first man, is said to have created out of the cosmic egg, with two horns, two tusks, and a hairy body. According to the ancient myths, Pangu is said to have shaped the earth by chiseling out valleys and stacking up mountains. All this was accompanied from his knowledge of yin yang—the inescapable principle of duality in all things.

Nuwa (aka Nugua), the goddess in humankind is one of the most popular characters in ancient Chinese mythology. As per the mythologies, Nuwa created the mankind and repaired the pillar of heaven and broken the corners of earth, which the Gong Gong had destroyed in a fit of anger. In Chinese mythologies, Nugua is regarded as the patroness of matchmakers. As a wife of Fushi, she helped establish the norms for marriage and regulated the conduct between sexes. Nuwa is also said to have built a lovely palace that became the prototype for the later walled cities of China. The materials of the palace were said to have prepared overnight by mountain spirits.

The most ancient myths involve the Ten Legendary Kings, gods who guided people through their prehistoric beginnings (around 3000-2197 B.C.E). They were demigods (half god and half human), who lived among the people and taught them the rules of civilization. Fushi was the first ruler of this magical period. Many scholars believe that his story is based on actual monarch who lived sometime between 2953-2736 B.C.E. Despite having different variations of the stories, Fushi has been depicted as a beloved figure in all of the mythology who taught survival skills to the early humans. He taught people how to use fire, how to cook, how to write and many other skills like hunting, fishing and fortune-telling. Some myths depict Fushi as having the body of human while others depict him as having the head of a human and the body of a snake. In many stories, he is regarded as the husband of Nuwa and they are the bearers of civilization.

Gong Gong (aka Kanghui), a Chinese water god, is one of the frequently described characters in ancient Chinese Mythology. He is depicted in stories as having red hair and the tail of a serpent. Gong Gong was credited in various mythological contexts as being responsible for destructive floods. He wrestled to get the control of the earth shortly after the creation of people. Before Gong, Zurong the fire god ruled the world peacefully. But when Gong became the ruler, he wanted to expand his influence by increasing the amount of water in the universe—in the seven tenths of water to three-tenths dry land. So, he sent heavy rains and came close to destroying the world in a fierce power struggle with the Zurong. To counteract the destructive forces of both Gong and Zurong, Nuwa the creator of people appears in this myth. Gong is often seen as an ancient destroyer god and is blamed for many other cosmic catastrophes. And in all accounts, Gong Gong ends up being killed or sent into exile.




The myth about Yu the Great is based on Chinese legend from 2205 to 2197 B.C.E. Like all demigods of the ancient times, Yu the Great could change himself into different shapes whenever necessary. He could transform himself into the bears, dragons and humans. Yu is considered the first one to pass his status as ruler to his descendants and thus create a dynasty called Xia. But due to lack of any archaeological evidences about Xia, it still remains to be a mythical dynasty. One legend among many recounts Da Yu’s (Yu the Great) extraordinary birth wherein a man called Gun was given charge of controlling a great flood. He stole a piece of magic soil from heaven, to dam the water. Furious with him, the Shangdi (the Lord on High) issued an order for his execution. After about 3 years, the miraculously preserved body of the gun was slit open and a son brought forth. He was Da Yu and he was the one who, after years of hard work, provided outlets to the sea through dredging, with the help of dragons. He is the one who made the earth suitable for human habitation.

In many ancient Chinese mythologies, we can see gods helping the people. But the Grand Archer Yi is the one of the few mortals who helped the gods. He is characterized by having great skills of archery. Hou-Yi is believed to have lived between 2436-2255 B.C.E. Myths about him are linked to the people of the Southwestern part of China. Yi was one of the most famed archers of that time. It is believed that Yi saved the moon during an eclipse and rescued the country from the variety of outbreaks. Hou Yi is also said to have shot down 9 of 10 suns that were burning up the earth in the prehistoric times. There are many other stories about Yi that are popular among common people.




Chang-O (or Chang’e)—the Chinese Goddess of the Moon, is the subject of several legends in Chinese mythology. The Moon Goddess mythology primarily incorporates elements like Houyi the archer, an elixir of life, a benevolent emperor, and the Moon. One very popular and interesting story about Chang-O takes you in the very distant past where the ten sons of the Jade Emperor were transformed into ten suns. The ten suns rose in the heaven and scorched the earth, causing it difficult for the people to live. The archer Yi shot down nine of them and left only one sun. Yi then was rewarded with the elixir of immortality. One day, when Yi was out for hunting, his apprentice Fengmeng broke into his house and forcefully tried to get the elixir from Yi’s wife, Chang’e. But Chang’e refused to give elixir to Fengmeng and drank it all herself. As she consumed the elixir, she became weightless and flew upwards towards the heavens and stay at the moon as a refugee.

The myth of The Unicorn’s Prophecy sprang up around the Confucius’s life. This story introduces the unicorn, the Chi-lin, which is considered a sacred animal to the Chinese. It does not actually similar to the unicorn in European myths, but is a mix of many creatures, including the deer, ox, dragon, and horse. The nature of Chin-Lin has been depicted in myths as a peaceful and timid animal. The Chi-Lin left the innocent alone, but if angered, jabbed evil people with its horn. It is said that some dependable soldiers and fairy judges fabricated the emblem of the Chi-lin on their clothing to remind themselves how dutiful they were. During the fourteenth century, a real giraffe was sent to the imperial court and many observers claimed it was the reincarnation of the mythical Chi-Lin.

A government official named Wu Ch’eng-en, in his popular novel called Journey to the West, tells this myth about the Monkey King named Sun Wukong. Sun Wukong is the most famous monkey in China. The monkey was said to have born out of a stone egg that came from a magic rock on the Mountain of Fruit and Flowers. According to the mythology, Sun used to be very naughty, eager to take over the world and it even cost Buddha a lot of efforts to tame him. The Monkey King is characterized by his greedy, but joyful, curious, and extremely popular nature. Later in his life, he became a loyal companion to the monk Xaunzang on his adventurous journey from China to India and back again. https://www.ancienthistorylists.com/china-history/top-10-astonishing-ancient-chinese-mythology/




Most Important Gods

(Source: Ancient)

The dragon is the oldest symbol of a deity found in China. The dragon symbol appears on pottery found at the Neolithic site of Banpo Village dating from between c. 4500-3750 BCE. Dragon was considered a composite of yin and yang energies and was originally seen as a balancing force who was wise and just. The dragon Yinglong was known as The Dragon King and god of rain and waters. As god of the sea, he was known as Hong Shen and was prayed to regularly by sailors and fishermen, but farmers who needed rain for their crops worshipped Dragon as well. He is also shown in human form as a wise man with the full sun behind his head watching over a boat full of people.

Shangti was the supreme god of law, order, justice, and creation. He is also known as Jade Emperor, Yellow Emperor, or Yu Huang Shang-Ti, although there are sometimes important distinctions made between these names and Jade Emperor can mean another deity. Shangti was considered the great ancestor of all Chinese, who gave the people culture, architecture, skill in battle, agriculture, controlled the weather, regulated the seasons, and was king over the other gods, human beings, and nature. He was worshipped primarily during the Shang Dynasty (1600-1046 BCE) when he was considered a deified king who ruled c. 2697-2597 BCE and was included in the mythical or semi-mythical grouping of the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors, demi-gods who ruled China between c. 2852-2070 BCE. During the Zhou Dynasty (c. 1046-226 BCE) Shangti was replaced by the concept of Tian (Heaven) but re-emerged as Shangti during the Warring States Period (476-221 BCE). The Zhou developed the concept of the Mandate of Heaven which legitimized the rule of a certain dynasty. Tian judged who was worthy to rule and for how long, and when a dynasty was no longer fit, it fell and another took its place.

She was the queen of the immortal gods and spirits, especially female spirits who lived in the mystical land of Xihua ("West Flower"), and goddess of immortality. She is also known as Xiwangmu or Xi-Wang-Mu and lived in a castle of gold in the Kunlun Mountains, surrounded by a moat which was so sensitive that even a hair dropped on the waters would sink. This moat served as protection for her Imperial Peach Orchard where the juices of the fruit of the trees gave immortality. Xiwangmu is shown as a beautiful woman with sharp teeth and a leopard's tail, or as an old, unattractive woman with a hunched back, tiger's teeth and a leopard's tale, depending on her mood. She rewarded her followers with eternal life but punished those who angered her. During the Han Dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE) her cult was very popular and shrines were built for her by the government. She is the wife of Mugong, Lord of the Spirits, who watches over male spirits in the land of Donghua ("East Flower") but is sometimes seen as the wife of Shangti.

Guanyin was the goddess of mercy and compassion who became the patron of sailors and fishermen. She was originally a deity in India known as Avalokitesvara whose name means "One Who Gazes Down Upon the World and Hears the Cries of the People". She came to China from India through trade via the Silk Road during the Han Dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE). She was so compassionate that she incarnated as the maiden Miaoshan in order to experience life as a human being and offer service to others. Miaoshan's father wanted her to marry a wealthy priest. Miaoshan refused to marry unless the marriage could end the sufferings caused by illness, aging, and death. When her father told her no marriage could end such things, she replied that a doctor could, but her father did not want her marrying someone of such a lowly occupation. She was allowed to enter a temple instead of marrying, but her father made sure that she was given all of the worst work, which she accomplished with the help of the nearby animals who responded to her goodness. Her father then tried to burn the temple down but Miaoshan put the fire out with her bare hands. He then had her executed, but when she went to hell, she released all of the goodness she held inside and turned it into paradise. The king of the dead, Lord Yama, sent her back to earth before she ruined his realm, and she lived afterwards on Fragrant Mountain where she watched over human beings. From her mountain home, she would often notice people in trouble on their boats at sea and rescued them, which is how she became patron goddess of sailors and fishermen. She was one of the most popular deities in all of China, and both men and women adored her.

Yan Wang is the god of death and king in the afterlife. He is the greatest of all the Lords of Death who rule the regions of the underworld. He is also known as Yang-Wang-Yeh, Lord Yama, and Lord Yama King. Yan Wang presides over the judgment of souls and decides whether they will be punished for their crimes in life, go on to live with the gods, or be reincarnated. In one famous story, a soldier named Commandant Yang, who had caused a great deal of suffering and misery in his life, died and appeared in the court of Yan Wang. Yan Wang asked him how he had managed to build up so many sins on his soul in the short time he was on earth. Yang claimed he was innocent and had done nothing wrong. Yan Wang commanded the scrolls of Yang's life to be brought in where the date and time of his sins were read along with who was affected and how many had died because of Yang's selfishness. Yang was condemned by the Lord of Death, and a great hand appeared which snatched him up and crushed him. It was said that one could escape punishment for one's sins on earth but no one could escape justice in the court of Yan Wang.

Nuwa and Fuxi were the mother and father deities of human beings. Nuwa was born at the beginning of creation and fixed the mistakes made at first so that everything was perfect. She built a palace for herself, which became the model for Chinese architecture, and lived there with her friend and brother Fuxi, both depicted as human-dragons with human heads and dragon bodies or human bodies to the waist and dragon legs and tails. Nuwa became lonely and created human beings for company from the mud of the Yellow River. She breathed life into them and they moved and lived. She continued to make more and more human beings but it was tiring work and so she created marriage so that they could reproduce themselves. The humans were alive but had no knowledge of anything and so Fuxi gave them the gifts of fire, writing, how to get food from the sea, and all the other skills they would need to live. He also gave them the gifts of music, culture, and divination so they could make good decisions by knowing what the future held.

Caishen, the god of wealth, was one of the most popular gods of ancient China and still is today. Statues of Caishen (also known as Ts'ai Shen) can be seen in businesses run by Chinese merchants all around the world and in Chinese homes. His statue shows a wealthy man seated in a silk robe holding riches in both hands. He is sometimes accompanied by two attendants carrying bowls of gold. He was not just the god of material wealth but of a rich life which meant a happy family and a secure, prosperous, and respectable job. Caishen was very generous to his followers but was not foolish and did not give out his wealth to just anyone. People had to prove themselves worthy of his generosity by working hard, praying to him regularly, and thanking him for his gifts. Temples and shrines to Caishen were probably the most numerous in ancient China.

Chang'e, the goddess of the moon, was another of the most popular deities in ancient China and is the most often mentioned deity in Chinese poetry and literature. She was the consort of the archer god Hou Yi who saved her during a lunar eclipse and brought her back safely. Chang'e betrayed him by stealing from him the elixir of immortality, which the gods had given him, and ran across the night sky with it, pursued by Hou Yi. She reached the moon where she transformed herself into a toad to hide from him until his rage passed. Hou Yi had been stopped in his pursuit by a hare who would not let him pass until he calmed down and promised he would not harm her. When Hou Yi reached the moon, Chang'e had remained in her toad form too long to change back and so, when one looks at the moon, one sees the outline of a toad on its surface. The story of Chang'e and Hou Yi was celebrated at the Mid-Autumn Festival in ancient China which is known today as the Moon Festival when people go outside at night to appreciate the moon, eat moon cakes, and give gifts to friends and family.

Zao-Shen (or Tsao Shen and Tsao Wang), also known as The Kitchen God, lived in the kitchen above the stove of every home. He was represented by a paper image made by the most prestigious woman of the household and was kept in the same place throughout the year. Zao-Shen was responsible for the happiness of the home and the prosperity of the family, but this depended on their behavior and values. Every month Zao-Shen left the home to report to the local gods and spirits on the family's conduct. If they had behaved well, he was instructed to increase their riches and happiness; if they had behaved badly, he was told to withdraw riches and happiness. "Riches" meant not only material wealth but comfort and well-being, which was further assured by his warding off evil spirits. When he left the home to make his report, families were especially anxious because they had no household protector. At the end of the lunar year, on New Year's Eve, Zao-Shen had to leave to report to Shangti himself and the universal gods on how the family had behaved throughout the year. At this time, more incense was burned than usual in front of the paper statue and its mouth was smeared with honey so that only sweet words about the family would be reported to the gods. Offerings of fine foods and good wine were placed before him to thank him for his protection. The paper figure was then burned and firecrackers set off to speed him on his way. The next morning, the first day of the New Year, a new paper statue was made and placed above the stove.

The god and goddess of love. Zhi Nu was the goddess of weaving for the gods and daughter of Shangti. Every day she wove the beautiful robes the gods wore and looked down on earth from her place among the stars and wished she could visit. She was finally granted permission by her father and went to earth where she left her clothes by the banks of a stream and went swimming. A cowherd named Niu Lang saw her and fell in love with her so he stole her clothes so she could not run away from him. When Zhi Nu came out of the water she was outraged that her clothes were gone but when Niu Lang explained himself she fell in love with him. She forgot all about her home in the heavens and her duties as divine weaver and stayed on earth with Niu Lang. They were very happy together, every day they were more in love, and they had many children. Shangti was not pleased, though, and neither were the other gods and so soldiers were sent to bring Zhi Nu back home. Niu Lang tried to follow but Shangti threw a wall of stars across his path and stopped him; these stars are known on earth as the Milky Way. Once a year, magpies fly from earth to the Milky Way and form a bridge the two can cross to be with each other on the evening known as the Seventh Night of the Seventh Moon. This became a very popular story referenced by writers and poets in many different eras of China's history. The Lady in the famous poem, Song of Everlasting Sorrow, references this story toward the end when she is on the island in the afterlife. The myth was the basis for the Festival of the Seventh Night of the Seventh Moon which officially was dedicated to women's art in sewing and weaving but unofficially was a night for romance. Zhi Nu is the star Vega in the constellation of Lyra, and Niu Lang is the star Altair in the constellation of Aquila, separated by the Milky Way except for once a year.

Menshen, the guardians of the door, known as "Gods of Peaceful Sleep" who protect a room, house, or building from evil spirits and ghosts, originated in the early Tang Dynasty (618-901 CE). The emperor Taizong (626-649 CE) was having a hard time sleeping because of nightmares. He consulted a doctor who blamed the bad dreams on evil spirits. Taizong's nightmares were so real he thought people were actually in the room trying to kill him, and so two of his most trusted guards were posted outside the door of his room, one standing on each side. Taizong began to sleep better with the guards outside and so ordered that their images be painted on the doorway. News of Taizong's painted soldiers spread and soon more and more people were painting guardians on their doors and rooms. These images can be seen on many buildings and homes in China and elsewhere. Part of the Chinese New Year celebration is cleaning and re-painting the Menshen on doorways.

The god of creation, P'an Ku (also known as Pan Gu and Pangu) is pictured as a hairy dwarf with horns. Once there was only darkness everywhere in the universe and in this grew a cosmic egg which was kept warm for thousands of years until it broke open and P'an Ku appeared. He cut through the darkness and separated the yin from the yang principles; then he made the yin into earth and the yang into sky and pushed them apart from each other. Every day he stood on the earth and pushed the sky a little higher, and each day he grew taller and taller until he was a giant. P'an Ku then began to add pretty details to his creation like mountains and valleys, which he made according to the principles of yin and yang so that everything would be balanced. He worked on his creation for thousands of years until it was perfect, and then he died. His breath became air and his blood the rivers and streams. The fleas from his body ran off and became animals while his body hair became forests of trees and bushes. His left eye became the sun and his right eye the moon. Many centuries after his death, Nuwa appeared and created human beings and Fuxi taught them how to survive in the world P'an Ku had created. In another version of the myth, human beings are the fleas which run from P'an Ku's body after he dies. https://www.ancient.eu/article/894/most-popular-gods--goddesses-of-ancient-china/

(Source: OWlCATION)

The Eight Immortals are a group of famous Taoist deities. In Chinese art and worship, they are typically represented by the mythical instruments they wield.

•    Li Tieguai (李铁拐) – Represented by crutches as he was lame. Guai means crutches in Chinese.

•    Han Zhongli (汉钟离) – Represented by a large Chinese fan.

•    Lü Dongbin (吕洞宾) – Represented by twin swords.

•    He Xiangu (何仙姑) – Represented by a lotus blossom.

•    Lan Caihe (蓝采和) – Represented by a flower basket.

•    Han Xiangzi (韩湘子) – Represented by a flute.

•    Zhang Guolao (张果老) – Represented by a Chinese fish drum, and riding a mule.

•    Cao Guojiu (曹国舅) – Represented by Chinese castanets.

(How the Eight achieved immortality involves a whole series of Chinese myths that you can read here.)

The most famous story of the Eight Immortals is that of them crossing the Eastern Ocean. During this journey, they entered into a conflict with the Dragon King, with the Eight then easily winning the ensuring battle with their colourful abilities. Subsequently, this conflict became a popular motif in many forms of art. It also gave rise to the saying, Ba Xian Guo Hai Ge Xian Shen Tong (八仙过海各显神通). This means an engagement in which each player exhibits his or her unique talents. https://owlcation.com/humanities/10-Chinese-Myths-to-Know-For-Your-China-Vacation







Ancient Greek Mythology 

Main Myths

(Source: Greeka)

Io was the beautiful princess of Argos in Peloponnese, who was seduced by god Zeus disguised into a cloud. However, his jealous wife, Hera, learned about this relationship and turned Io into a cow to keep her away from her husband. Io was to suffer many misfortunes until she was finally turned into a woman again and have a normal life.

The ancient people of Greece used to explain things they couldn't understand with myths. That is how they explained the creation of the world, natural phenomena or destructions or the existance of powers that could surpass human nature. That way, when they were looking at the sky and were observing all these stars, they would wonder what had caused these stars and constellations to exist. In fact, many myths have been created to explain the existence of stars. The story of Callisto is such a myth, created for the sake of two beautiful constellations, the Ursa Major and the Ursa Minor.

It is well-known that Athens was the most powerful and glorious town of ancient Greece. Its residents managed to develop a wonderful civilization that is admired till today. It is also known that the city got its name from Athena, the goddess of wisdom and courage. But how did Athens got its name? Here is a charming little story about the origin of the city's name.

This myth is about a beautiful girl that was abducted and then seduced by Zeus, the chief of the Greek Gods. This concept is pretty usual in Greek mythology. The remarkable thing is that this girl became queen of Crete and gave her name to the entire continent of Europe. Her story has been particularly popular since the ancient times and has been depicted in many ancient pieces of ceramics and coins.

The story of Pandora came into prominence in "Theogeny", the epic poem of Hesiod, written circa 800 BC. The myth dates back to the first centuries of humanity, just after the Titanomachy, the Great War between the Titans and the Olympians. It is the story of a woman who opened the box where all the evils of the world were kept inside and thus she released every mischief for humans.

Odysseus, the king of Ithaca, is probably the most famous hero of all times. His story is a myth with monsters, bad luck and much adventure. The story of Odysseus is actually the long trip of a man who has only one aim, to go back to his beloved homeland and his family. Odysseus left Troy after then years of war and started his journey to his home on Ithaca. However, this journey was long and adventurous.

The myth of Jason, his fellow Argonauts and the trip to get the Golden Fleece has enthralled the world. This is a story of excitement, danger and adventure. Jason, the legitimate king of Iolcus, sets the voyage on his ship Argo to the foreign land of Colchis to get the Golden Fleece and prove that he is worth to become king. On the way, he encounters many troubles and delays. Even when he arrives in Colchis, he has to confront the deceptions of the local king.

Theseus was a semi-mythical, semi-historical figure. The myth says that he had two fathers, king Aegeus of Athens and god Poseidon. As he descended from a god, he had super-natural powers. The most famous labor of Theseus was the killing of the Minotaur in Crete Greece to relieve Athens from the burden to sacrifice seven young men and seven young women to this monstrous figure. After the death of king Aegeus, Theseus became king of Athens and legend says that his first wife was an Amazon.

The myth of Persephone, the sweet daughter of Greek goddess Demeter who was kidnapped by Hades and later became the Queen of the Underworld, is known all over the world. This is actually the myth of the ancient Greeks to explain the change of the seasons, the eternal cycle of nature's death and rebirth. Persephone is understood as a naïve little girl who flows between the protection of the mother and the love of her husband. The myth of Persephone was very popular in the ancient times and it is said that her story was represented in the Eleusinian Mysteries, the most secret celebrations of ancient Greece.

The myth of Prometheus holds a special place in Greek mythology. This son of a Titan was regarded as a great benefactor of humankind, the bringer of fire and the original teacher of technology and useful arts to the mankind. The great love he had for humans would often bring Prometheus into a dangerous conflict with Zeus. In fact, it was Zeus who punished Prometheus into eternal torture for stealing fire from the gods and giving it to the people.

The myth of Daedalus and Icarus shows us that the power of man has no limits but also that we should be very careful how to use this power. Icarus could fly with his wings, however when he flied too close to the sun, his wings were burnt and he fell to the sea. The closest island where Icarus fell and got drowned took its name and it is called Ikaria till today.

The myth of Perseus and Andromeda contains very deep wisdom on the interactions of male and female energy. Perseus is one of the greatest heroes of Mythology of Greece. He was the son of mighty Zeus and mortal woman Danae. He is best known as the slayer of the Gorgon Medusa, a fearsome monster, and as the rescuer of the Ethiopian princess Andromeda.

The myth of King Midas is a myth about the tragedy of avarice and narrates what happens when true happiness is not recognized. Midas wished that everything he touched would turn into gold. However, he had not thought that this wish was not actually a blessing, but a curse. The phrase “the Midas touch” comes from this myth and is used to say that somebody has a good fortune.

Leto in ancient myths of Greece was the representation of motherhood. Like every mother, she suffered a lot to give birth to her children and then to protect and raise them up in the proper way. Leto suffered many misfortunes because of her relationship with Zeus, which caused Hera's jealousy and cursed Leto not to find a stable place on Earth to deliver her children. That is how Delos emerged, which was believed to be a floating island. Leto gave birth to Artemis and Apollo there and since then Delos became the sacred place of god Apollo.

Adonis was the deity of plants and rebirth. He is known as a god who was for ever youthful, the one who would live and die only to be reborn again. The cult of Adonis comprised of women, as it is evident from the 2,600-year-old remains found on the island of Lesvos. The Athenian women planted the "gardens of Adonis" where the seeds would spring to life and then die to be reborn a few months later. The Festival of Adonis was celebrated in mid-summer when fennel and lettuce were harvested.

According to the ancient myths, the Sun was put in a chariot and everyday God Helios would drive the chariot all along the sky. That is how the Sun would rise and set. Phaethon was the son the god Helios who secretly took the chariot one day to drive it. However, as he was young and inexperienced, he lost control of the horses and got killed.Asclepius was originally a mortal and later became the god of medicine and healing, according to the ancient Greeks. 

The myth of Asclepius is connected to the origins of medical science and the healing arts. His cult was particularly popular all over Greece and people from all Mediterranean countries used to come to his temples, named Asclepieion, to be cured. Remains of these temples can be seen till today. His story is pretty interesting and is actually a story of punishment.

This charming myth talks about the platonic love of god Apollo for the beautiful nymph Daphne. It is said that Daphne was the first love of Apollo but unfortunately the girl never responded to his love. She prayed to be turned into a tree, so that god could not seduce her. Indeed, she was turned into a laurel tree. Since then, Apollo didn't forget his lost love and made laurel his sacred plant. Note that Pythia, the priestess in the oracle of Delphi, was chewing leaves of laurel to communicate with Apollo and give her prophesies to people.

The touching story of Alcyone and Ceyx has given a common phrase, the Halcyon Days. This is the story of a couple who were punished for their arrogance towords the gods but in the end they didn't let their love fade. The Halcyon Days are some warm days in the middle of winter, in January.

Arachne, her name meaning spider in Greek, was a beautiful woman that had a great talent in weaving. Everyone was amazed at her work and one day, Arachne boosted that she had a greater talent than goddess Athena herself. This was an offense towards the gods, which was a very serious and even deadly sin for the ancient Greeks. That is why goddess Athena transformed her into a spider to wave for all her life long.

Cadmus is known as the founder and the first king of Thebes, a powerful town in the ancient times, close to Athens. He is also known as the man who brought the written alphabet from the Phoenicians to the Greeks, and through the Greeks to the whole world. According to mythology, his life was long and adventurous. Everything started when his sister Europa was abducted by Zeus, the chief of the gods. That is when he left his country to look for her. Although he probably didn't find her at the end, the Fates had planned a great life for him.

The story of Deucalion and Pyrrha resembles a lot to the Biblical story of Noah's Ark. This is the version of the ancient Greeks in their attempt to purify the old world from sins and give birth to a new race of human. The amazing thing is the similarities between the two stories, as both of them use a disastrous flood to make the humankind extinct. The few people that are saved from the flood have managed to do so in a boat and many days after the rain stopped did they manage to step on land.

The story of Idas and Marpessa is a myth of love. These two characters proved that love and eternal devotion cannot be conquered by sword, power, beauty or glory. Marpessa was a young maiden who some time in her life found herself in the need to choose her husband between a mortal and a god. What was her decision?

The myth of Danaides is the story of fifty women who committed a horrible act: guided by their father, they all killed their husbands on their wedding night! This great massacre was unbelievable, even for the bloody ancient Greek myths. It was a crime that both people and gods would punish. Indeed, the Danaides were punished for this after their death with a horrible and eternal torment.\

The tragic tale of Niobe is one of the most memorable Greek myths, for Niobe's story features a striking example of the consequences of hybris, a Greek term defined as arrogance or excessive pride. This myth was popular in ancient literature, poetry and art. Therefore, it is not a surprise that the legend of Niobe appears in one of our oldest and best sources for Greek myths, the Iliad of Homer. https://www.greeka.com/greece-myths/








Main Gods

(Source: National Geographic)

Zeus was the king of the gods, and the most powerful. He was the god of the sky and thunder, and controlled the weather. He had different powers, his most famous being the ability to hurl lightning bolts at those who displeased him! He hated dishonesty, and would punish those who lied or broke promises.

Hera was Zeus’ wife and queen of the gods. She was the goddess of women, marriage and family. Hera was well worshipped by the Ancient Greeks, and the oldest and most important temples of the region were built in honour of her. Her sacred animals were the cow, lion and peacock. 

Poseidon was the brother of Zeus, and god of the sea and earthquakes. Although one of the gods of Mount Olympus, he spent most of his time in the ocean. His weapon was a trident which was said to be so powerful it could shake the earth and shatter any object! He had a reputation for being bad-tempered and moody, and would seek revenge on those who angered him.




Aphrodite was the goddess of love and beauty. The Greeks believed Aphrodite was created from the foam of the sea on the shores of Paphos, Cyprus. She was considered the most beautiful of the gods, and later married Hephaestus, god of metalwork and fire. Her sacred animal was the dove.

Hades was Zeus and Poseidon’s elder brother. Although a god of Mount of Olympus, Hades rarely left his dark kingdom, the underworld, where he ruled over the dead. Because he represented death, Hades was the most feared of the Ancient Greek gods – some people even refused to say his name! Hades was aided in the underworld by his three headed dog, Cerberus.

A son of Zeus, Hermes was the messenger of the gods. He was also responsible for guiding the dead to the underworld. Hermes was said to be the fastest of the gods and wore winged sandals and a winged hat. He was also known for his intelligence and wit, and would help Zeus with his important decisions.

Demeter was the goddess of agriculture, vegetation and crop growth. She was also associated with the seasons. The Ancient Greeks believed that her daughter, Persephone, was taken from her for four months each year, during which Demeter would grieve and withdraw her gifts from the world, creating winter. 

A son of Zeus, Apollo was the Greek god of music, arts, light and medicine. He was famous for playing the lyre (an instrument a bit like a small U-shaped harp) – and he was also believed to have invented the lute (a pear-shaped string instrument). Although associated with health and healing, together with his twin sister Artemis, he could bring disease and plague to humans.

Athena was the Greek goddess of wisdom, skill and war. She taught humans various skills and crafts such as weaving, and would protect heroes during war. She was said to be Zeus’ favourite daughter, so much so that he would allow her to use his weapons – even this blastastic thunderbolt! Her sacred animal was the owl. (https://www.natgeokids.com/za/discover/history/greece/greek-gods/#!/register )

Main Critures 

(Source: Greek Gods and Godesses)

The Arachne is a creature from Greek mythology, whose name was later used for words like “arachnid” and “arachnophobia.” There’s very little to fear about the story of Arachne, however. Hers is a cautionary tale about pride that we can all learn from. According to the myth, Arachne was a very famous and talented weaver. […]

In Greek mythology, Centaurs (or Kentauroi) are half-man, half horse creatures that inhabited the mountains and forests of Thessaly. Centaurs were said to be primal, existing in tribes and making their homes in caves, hunting wild animals and arming themselves with rocks and tree branches.

Cerberus: The three Headed Dog of Greek Mythology There are many unique creatures mentioned in Greek mythology. One of the most well known may be the three-headed dog known as Cerberus. It was the job of Cerberus to guard the entrance to Hades. In Greek mythology, this was the underworld where spirits of the dead […]

Chimaera – A Fire-Breathing Monster Chimaera has become one of the most famous female monsters described in Greek mythology. An aura of mystery has always surrounded this creature. (Even today, the name “chimaera” sometimes refers to a genetic puzzle.) Greek sailors considered it a very bad omen to see Chimaera. She usually appeared right before a […]

The Cyclopes were giant; one-eyed monsters; a wild race of lawless creatures who possess neither social manners nor fear of the Gods. Cyclopes means ‘round eye.’ Considered the sons of Uranus and Gaea they were the workmen of the God Hephaestus whose workshop was in the heart of the volcanic mountain Etna. According to Homer’s […]

Echidna the She-Viper – Mother of Monsters Echidna is a somewhat obscure, but nevertheless fearsome monster in Greek mythology. Homer’s The Iliad and Hesiod’s poem Theogony are some of the oldest writings to feature her, and have therefore been influential in shaping Echidna’s modern narrative. Other than what is established in The Iliad, Theogony and […]

The Harpies were mythical monsters in Greek mythology that had the form of a bird with a human female face; often agents of punishment they abducted people and tortured them on their way to Hades’ domain, employed by the God as instruments for the punishment of the guilty. They stole food from their victims and […]

One of the most popular monsters of Greek Mythology, Medusa was a beautiful maiden with golden hair. She vowed to be celibate her entire life as a priestess of Athena until she fell in love with Poseidon. She went against her vow and married him. For this Athena punished her hideously. She turned Medusa into […]

The tale of the Minotaur is one of the classics of Greek mythology and contains an extraordinary number of important elements. Characters like the brilliant Daedalus, strong Theseus, evil King Minos and his beautiful daughter Ariadne all make an appearance in this story. The concept of the labyrinth, or the endless underground maze, also originates […]

Pegasus is a mythological creature described as a beautiful, pure white stallion with wings. He was born from the blood of Medusa, a frightful Gorgon whose gaze could turn men to stone, when the hero Perseus decapitated her.

Cyclopes are the only beasts of the first creation that are not punished by Zeus when he overthrows his father, Cronus. This may have something to do with them being his nephews as sons of Poseidon, and no, there are no female cyclopes. They will eventually become favorites of the god, forgers of his thunderbolts, […]

In Greek mythology, Scylla (pronounced “Sill-ah” or “Skee-lah”, depending on what country you live in) is a sea monster who lives on the rocks of a narrow water channel opposite of the whirlpool (and originally also a sea monster) Charybdis. Ships caught in between Scylla and Charybdis often end up being sunk by either Scylla […]

The Sirens were creatures that sang beautifully, luring those passing by to their deaths. Each Siren combined the appearance of a woman and a bird, with the exact appearance varying depending on the artist. Some artists drew Sirens that had bodies of birds with the heads of women, while others made them look like women […] https://greekgodsandgoddesses.net/myths/




Norse Mythology 

Families of the Gods and Main Myths

(Source: Groeneveld, E., Ancient.; Mentalfloss)

The gods themselves are boxed into two families. Firstly, there is the bigger Æsir family mostly connected with war and government, which was in practice also used as an umbrella term for the main gods in general. It includes notables such as Odin, Thor, Loki, Baldr, Hodr, Heimdall, and Týr.

Secondly, the smaller Vanir family contains fertility gods such as Njord, Freyr, and Freyja. Despite them all living in Asgard, they do not always see eye-to-eye - which, admittedly, is difficult considering Odin only has one eye, to begin with. In fact, they clash to the point of war (the ‘Vanir wars’; or ‘Æsir-Vanir Wars’) but exchange hostages after making peace and fuse their families through marriage.

The contrast between the Æsir and the Vanir has been argued to stem from oppositions in Viking society, as the Vanir, with their focus on fertility, good harvests, and the climate, were popular in farming communities, while the Æsir were seen to advise kings, lords, and their warriors in matters of war and governance. As such, the peace made at the end of the Vanir wars might reflect the idea that society could only function through the combined powers of both social classes.

Finally, besides these two divine classes, there were also female deities known as Dísir, popular in private worship, Álfar (elves), Jǫtnar (giants), and Dvergar (dwarfs); enough to keep everyone busy, for sure. Norse mythology offers a very rich world to get lost in. https://www.ancient.eu/Norse_Mythology/







The Norse believed that the universe emerged from an empty, yawning gulf separating worlds made of ice and fire, respectively, inhabited only by a mysterious, hermaphroditic being named Ymir, who became the mother and father of the race of the jotuns, chaotic nature spirits that would later be the enemies of the Norse gods. Eventually, another being, Buri, came into existence, and his grandchildren, Vili, Ve and Odin, decided to create the world and fill it with life. But unlike the Judeo-Christian conception of God, the Norse deities could not create substance out of nothing, so Odin and his brothers did the only sensible thing – they murdered Ymir and made the world out of his body and the sky out of his skull.  Ymir’s blood became the sea, his bones and teeth became rocks and mountains, and his brains the clouds.




Popular literature makes Odin the most important of the Norse gods, but in reality he was an unpopular deity and his cult was never widespread beyond poets, shamans and kings. Odin practiced seidr, a form of magic considered unmanly, and was the god of frenzy, betrayal and death (in addition to inspiration and wisdom). A particular obsession of his was the hoarding of knowledge, and he sent his servants, ravens nicknamed Thought and Memory, out into the world to bring him news. Norse myths tell of Odin’s quest for the secrets of the universe. Wisdom came with a price: to gain insight into the future, Odin sacrificed an eye to drink from a magical well, but in the process learned of his own inescapable fate. 

But worse was yet to come. To gain the knowledge of the runes, a magical writing system that could give great power to the user, Odin had to stab himself with a spear and hang himself from a tree for nine days and nights. In memory of this act, sacrifices to Odin were killed in similar fashion – including a few kings whose subjects grew tired of their failures.

Loki was Odin’s blood-brother and something of an alter-ego. A trickster whose games often crossed the line into the malicious, Loki convinced the gods to make a wager with a giant who promised to build them a fortress in a short span of time. If successful, the giant wanted the hand of the goddess Freyja in marriage. When it seemed that the building would actually be finished on schedule, the gods threatened Loki with death. The wily deity turned himself into a mare and seduced Svaðilfari, the giant’s horse, making completion of the fortress impossible. You can probably guess what happened next – Loki became the proud “mother” of an eight-legged stallion, Sleipnir, who became Odin’s ride. 

Loki’s malicious ways eventually caught up with him when he became responsible for the death of Odin’s son Baldur and composed scandalous verses about his fellow-gods. The gods, tired of putting up with him, bound him in chains made from his own son’s entrails and imprisoned him under the earth to wait until the end of days.

The writer and scholar Poul Anderson called the story of Hadding “dark and violent even by saga standards.” Hadding, a mythological king of Denmark, was sent as a child to be fostered by a family of jotuns (Ymir’s children, see #1 above). When he grew to manhood, he became the lover of his own wet-nurse, only to watch her torn to pieces by alien, chaotic powers beyond his understanding. 

Guided by Odin in disguise, he won back his father’s kingdom and enjoyed great success in wars against neighboring kings. But what goes up, must come down, and Hadding, facing old age and the death of friends, ended his life hanging himself in a grove of sacred trees as a sacrifice to his patron, Odin.

Domaldi, a legendary Swedish king, did not have a happy life. He became king when his two older half-brothers murdered their father Visbur, and his stepmother cursed Domaldi with a life of bad luck. This was one curse not made in vain; Domaldi’s reign was marked by famine and plague. The first year of starvation, the Swedish chieftains sacrificed oxen, and when the harvest was still terrible, they offered up human beings the following year. Because the luck of the land was believed to be tied to the luck of the king, on the third year the chieftains reluctantly decided they had to sacrifice Domaldi (who was generally liked and well-regarded). Superstition? Maybe, but one saga relates that Sweden’s luck changed once the altar was splashed with Domaldi’s blood, and the next year’s harvests were excellent.

OK, it’s technically Anglo-Saxon, not Norse, but Beowulf comes out of the same body of tradition as the Norse myths and takes place in Scandinavia. In one scene, the hero is locked in mortal combat with Grendel’s mother. During their struggle, Grendel’s mother (who has been interpreted by different scholars as a demon, a troll, a valkyrie, or some sort of fertility goddess) pins and straddles the warrior. Some scholars interpret this scene as a depiction of an ancient sacrificial rite, where a priestess mated with, and then killed, a victim to ensure a bountiful harvest. But Beowulf was having none of it, and managed to slaughter his opponent and go on to many more adventures over the course of the 3,182-line poem.

Völsunga saga is one of the best known of the Old Norse legendary sagas. Together with the Nieblunglied, with which it shares common source materials, it has become the inspiration for such diverse works as Richard Wagner’s Ring Cycle and J.R.R. Tolkien’s Lord of the Rings (Tolkien also wrote an epic poem based on the saga, published posthumously as The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrun). 

Starkad is the hero of a number of legendary sagas. Descended from giants and a favored worshipper of Odin, Starkad was blessed with the lifespan of three ordinary men. But the blessing bore its own curse, which was that Starkad was destined to commit three heinous acts. In the most famous of these, Starkad’s friend King Vikar of Agder (in southern Norway) was marooned with his fleet because they could not get a favorable wind. Vikar’s men decided that a human sacrifice was required, and when they cast lots to see who would be chosen, it was Vikar himself who got the “honor.” Starkad convinced the king to participate in a mock sacrifice, where he would be “hanged” with a loose noose and “stabbed” with a reed. It was an Odin-inspired trick, however – the noose became tight and strong, the reed was magically transformed into a spear, and Vikar, predictably, died at the hands of his best friend.

Ingjald was a legendary king of the Swedes. As a small, mild-mannered child, he had been given a wolf’s heart to eat to toughen him up. His people learned the hard way that trying to change a person can have unintended consequences, and Ingjald became cruel and ruthless from that day forward.  Wanting no competition, he built a grand feasting hall and invited seven client-kings over for dinner. When they showed up he locked them in and burned the hall, along with everyone inside, to the ground. Ingjald and his men waited outside to cut down anyone who tried to escape. For this episode he became known as “Illrádi,” or “Bad-Ruler.” Ingjald’s daughter Aasa was no better. When Ingjald married her off to Gudrod, a neighboring king, she convinced her new husband to kill his own brother, then arranged for Gudrod’s own death before returning to her father’s house. 




It was perhaps the most feared word in the Norse lexicon.  Ragnarök, or the Doom of the Gods, was a fate set in stone, and even the mighty and wise Odin could not escape it. The Norse believed that there would be an “an ax age, a sword age … a wind age, a wolf age, before the world falls.” Three years of chaos, famine and plague on earth would be followed by a mighty war in the heavens, when the gods of the Norse pantheon would finally have to face the armies of chaos – including jotuns, giant wolves, a world-spanning serpent, and a liberated and revenge-hungry Loki – in battle. Most of the important Norse gods, including Odin, Thor, Frey and Tyr, would fall, and the fire-giant Surt would burn the entire world to ashes, killing virtually everything that lives. 

Lest you be left with the impression that the Norse were complete sadsacks, one work, the Völuspá, contains a faint glimmer of hope. In its final lines the poem describes how a new world would arise from the ashes of the old, the surviving gods and men would rebuild their homes and re-discover lost knowledge, and a mysterious “mighty lord” would arrive to “order rules, fix rights, and ordain laws that shall live forever.” (http://mentalfloss.com/article/26051/10-disturbing-episodes-norse-mythology)

Main Characters 

(Source: AleHorn, Real of History)

Like with most mythologies, including Mesopotamian and Egyptian, the Norse pantheon had its primeval entity in the form of Ymir, the ancestor of all jötnar (mythic entities that ranged from giants to other fantastical creatures). Now as opposed to a strict categorization as one of the Norse gods, Ymir was perceived more as the ‘first being’ who was created by the ice of Niflheim combined with the heat of Muspelheim, long before the existence of the Earth. And after his own genesis, Ymir, with his hermaphroditic body, was responsible for birthing male, female, and other mythical beings, who in turn would go on to bear future generations.

And mirroring other primeval deities of ancient mythologies, the narrative of Ymir took a turn, with the entity being given a tragic ending due to his apparent evil machinations. To that end, Buri(created after Ymir), often acknowledged as the first of the Norse gods, had a son named Bor, who finally married one of Ymir’s descendants Bestla, and their union produced three sons – Ve, Vili, and Odin. But the angry Ymir confronted these ascending young Norse gods, which eventually led to his own death at the hands of the three brothers.

Odin (Óðinn in Old Norse), possibly the most revered yet enigmatic of all Norse gods, was regarded as the king of the Æsir tribe of gods. Historically, Odin had always been prominent in the pantheon of Germanic mythology, as is evident from Tacitus’ late 1st-century AD work Germania (where Odin is seen as the equivalent of Roman god Mercury). And given his mythical eminence over the cultural framework of the Germanic people, Odin was associated with various (and often antithetical) aspects, ranging from wisdom, healing, royalty to death, sorcery, and even frenzy.

Pertaining to the attribute of wisdom, the character of Odin mirroring his ‘contradictory’ aspects, was often portrayed as the haggard wanderer who relentlessly seeks knowledge, in spite of his regal status as the ruler of the Asgard. One of the stories epitomizes the god’s thirst for knowledge and wisdom where Odin willingly gouges out one of his eyes as a sacrifice for Mimir, a shadowy being who possesses unparalleled knowledge because of its consumption of the water from the Well of Urd. Mimir in return offers Odin a draught from the well that draws water from the roots of the Yggdrasil, the cosmic tree that binds the nine worlds of Norse mythology.

On the other hand, the one-eyed Odin also has a sinister (albeit in a nascent level) side to him, given the entity’s proclivity for provocation that leads to conflicts and wars. Essentially, when perceived as a war-god, Odin was seen as the epitome of battle frenzy and chaos – aspects that were favored by the warlords and berserkers. In any case, in our modern day context, the name of Odin is related to Wednesday, since the word is derived from wodnesdæg (“Woden’s Day”), with Odin being referred to as Wōden in Old English and Wōtan in Old High German.

Possibly the foremost of all Norse goddesses when it came to their pantheon, Frigg was regarded as the Queen of the Æsir and the goddess of the sky. Moreover, with her special status as the spouse of Odin, the deity, with her power of foreknowledge, was also frequently associated with fertility, household, motherhood, marriage, and even domestic matters. In essence, of all the Norse gods, it was the mythic aspects of Frigg that were mostly related to the perceived bliss of family life.

On the other hand, Frigg’s love for family and motherly protectiveness over also leads to the tragic episode of her favored child Balder’s death (discussed later). Interestingly enough, in spite of Frigg’s eminence in later Norse mythology (during the Viking period), her Old Germanic version is steeped in mystery – a factor that is still debated in the academic world. Pertaining to the latter, according to one of the origin hypotheses, Frigg was possibly identified with the goddess Freyja (who is discussed later in the article) during the Proto-Germanic period. But as scholar Stephan Grundy mentioned in his book The Concept of the Goddess –

Arguably the most famous of the Norse gods, Thor (Þórr in Old Norse), the god of thunder, with his burly might and boisterous ways, epitomized the formidable warrior who was accorded high status in the Germanic society of ancient and early medieval times. Regarded as the son of Odin and his wife Fjörgyn (not to be confused with Frigg), Thor, with his red beard and eyes, was hailed as the loyal and stalwart defender of the Æsir’s stronghold of Asgard, thus suggesting his symbolic role as the protector of the ordered cosmos.

Suffice it to say, according to Poetic Edda, Thor was considered as the strongest of all beings among both gods and men. And his strength was rather ‘amplified’ by some of his specially-crafted apparels, including his iron gloves and the belt of Megingjard (or megingjarðar in Old Norse). But the most common item associated with Thor undoubtedly pertains to the dwarf-crafted hammer Mjöllnir (roughly translated to ‘lightning’), thus alluding to how thunder was perceived (by the pre-Christianity era Norsemen) as the result of Thor striking his hammer, presumably when slaying giants and monsters while riding his chariot drawn by two giant goats – Tanngniost and Tanngrisnir.

Interestingly enough, Thor was also regarded as the god of agriculture, fertility, and hallowing. Pertaining to the former, this aspect was probably an extension of Thor’s role as a sky god who was also responsible for rain. To that end, Thor’s wife Sif and her golden hair possibly symbolized the fields of grain, and thus their union embodied the fruitfulness and verdancy of the lands. 




Regarded as the Æsir god of light and purity, Balder, or Baldur (Baldr in Old Norse), the younger son of Odin and Frigg, and half-brother of Thor, epitomized the effulgent summer sun itself. He was also hailed as a fair, wise, and gracious divine being whose beauty even abashed the elegant flowers before him. Matching his physical attributes, his abode Breidablik in Asgard was considered the most exquisite of all halls in the stronghold of the Norse gods, flaunting its gilded silver components and embellished pillars that only allowed the purest of hearts to enter. Snorri Sturluson wrote –

The deity of war and heroic glory, Tyr (or Týr in Old Norse) was regarded as the bravest of the Norse gods of the Germanic people. And in spite of his association with wars – more specifically the formalities of conflict, including treaties, his origins are rather enigmatic, with the deity possibly being one the oldest and most important of the ancient Germanic pantheon, until he was supplanted by Odin (who had been described in many myths as Tyr’s father, while other stories place Tyr as the son of the giant Hymir). In any case, since some of the aspects of Tyr related to formalities, the god was also hailed as the deity of justice and oaths.

Tyr was often depicted as the one-handed god since his limb was bitten off by the monstrous wolf Fenrir when the god tried to trap the creature (and Fenrir was thus successfully bound till Ragnarokdue to the sacrifice of Tyr). In spite of this episode, Tyr is foretold to be slain by Garm, the guard dog of Hel, as opposed to Fenrir (according to the prose version of Ragnarök). And like some other Norse gods, Tyr also has his significance in our modern day context. In that regard, the Old English variant of his name is Tiw, and he was associated with Mars by the Romans, and thus dies Marti (Mars’ Day) came to be known as tiwesdæg (Tuesday).

Bragi (which roughly translates to ‘Poet’ in Old Norse), often considered as the skaldic god of poetry in Norse mythology, pertains to a unique mythical character who possibly shared traits with the historical 9th-century bard Bragi Boddason, who himself might have served in the courts of Ragnar Lodbrok and Björn at Hauge. In any case, when it came to legends, the god Bragi was perceived as the bard of Valhalla, the magnificent hall of Odin where all the fallen heroes and warriors are gathered for the ultimate ‘showdown’ at Ragnarok. To that end, Bragi was hailed as the skillful poet-god who sang and delighted the hordes of the Einherjar (warriors who died in battles and were brought to Odin’s majestic hall by the Valkyries). Snorri Sturluson wrote (in Gylfaginning) –

Represented as having qualities somewhat akin to the chaotic and mischevious aspects of ancient Egyptian god Set, Loki is regarded as the trickster among the Norse gods, who as a jötunn (being the son of giants Helblinde and Býleistr) also possesses the power to shapeshift. Essentially, he is projected as an entity who is not entirely evil in his whimsical purposes, and yet particularly scheming in his cruel actions – many of which lead to misfortunes and even tragedies (like the accidental death of Balder).

Now given his heritage as an outsider among the Æsir tribe of gods, the narrative of Loki in ancient stories might have served as a plot device that provides a soft antithesis to the other gods. His complex relationship with other gods, particularly Thor, comes to light from different sources. For example, in Lokasenna or “Loki’s quarrel” (one of the poems of Poetic Edda), Loki keeps on insulting Thor and then goes into hiding fearing the hammer Mjölnir. On the other hand, in Þrymskviða (or anglicised as Thrymskvida), Thor and Loki share their camaraderie when they together hatch a plan to retrieve the stolen Mjölnir from a jötunn named Þrymr.

However, in spite of Loki’s complicated character and narrative, he is foretold to be responsible for the deaths of many Norse gods during Ragnarok. For example, Loki’s son, Fenrir the Wolf will kill Odin, while his other offspring, Jörmungandr the Serpent will poison Thor (that would ultimately lead to the thunder god’s demise).

We tend to associate hell with the realm of eternal damnation. Well, its Germanic counterpart was no walk in the park either, with inhabitants like Fenrir the Wolf, Jörmungandr the Serpent and other subjects who had died through sickness and old age. The ruler of this netherworld (also called Helheim) was the eponymous Hel, who was the daughter of Loki and the giant Angrboda. And it fell upon her to judge and decide the fate of the souls who entered her realm.

Descriptions of Hel, the being, have been found in numerous Viking sagas and poems; and most of them portray her as being partly decomposed with a face and a body of living women (albeit with a gloomy, downcast appearance), but with thighs and legs of a corpse. Still, among the Norse goddesses, she was said to be most powerful, even more than Odin himself, inside her own realm the Hel. The tragic episode of Balder’s death confirms such an association to power since it ultimately falls upon Hel to decide the fate of the soul of a god who was considered the wisest and most pure of all the Norse gods of Æsir.

Often portrayed as ever-vigilant guardian of Asgard, the stronghold of the Æsir Norse gods, Heimdall (or Heimdallr in Old Norse) was hailed as the descendant of giant Fornjót, and the grandson of sea jötunn (singular of jötnar) Ægir. He is often depicted with his horn Gjallarhorn(‘Resounding Horn’), which is put to use when intruders approach the home of the Æsir tribe of gods. Pertaining to this ‘guarding’ duty, Heimdall is attested to possess keen eyesight (that stretches to hundreds of miles) and hearing (that even encompasses the sound of wool growing on the sheep), complemented by other qualities like having foreknowledge and vast sources of energy (that allows him to sleep less than a bird).

Interestingly enough, there is a possibility that Heimdallr was once considered to be the father of humankind, as vaguely mentioned in the Old Norse poem Völuspá. Other scholars have hypothesized that Heimdall as a figurehead was historically perceived by the Norse tribes as being responsible for creating the hierarchy and classes among men. In any case, reverting to mythology, Heimdall also plays an important role in the impending Ragnarok, where he will sound the dire call of Gjallarhorn to signal the arrival of the giants and monsters. And in the consequent confrontations, Loki and Heimdall are foretold to slay one another.

One the most venerated and beloved of the Norse gods, Freyr (along with his twin sister Freya) was unique in his origins, since he belonged to the Vanir tribe of Norse gods, as opposed to the Æsir. Usually depicted as a brawny man with his flowing hair, Freyr, the son of sea-god Njord(and frost giantess, Skadi or Njord’s unnamed sister), was hailed as the foremost of deities when it came to the aspect of fertility – covering both sexual and ecological scopes. Simply put, the god embodied bountiful harvests, wealth, peace, and possibly even virility – all symbolized by Freyr’s boar Gullinborsti (‘Golden-Bristled’).

Given his association to such important avenues, Freyr was the favored entity of reverence and worship when it came to marriage rites and harvest celebrations. The preferred sacrifice in these cases often involved the boar, the animal symbolically linked to the fertility god. In that regard, in Norse mythology, Freyr was also known to travel in his chariot pulled by boars – and this was enacted by ancient historical processions of Germanic priests who went around in chariots (containing Freyr’s statue) to typify the coming of ‘peace and prosperity’ in various regions of Germania.

Freya (Freyja in Old Norse, meaning ‘Lady’), though initially belonging to the Vanir tribe of Norse gods (like his twin brother Freyr), was also as a loyal and honorary member of the Æsir, after the conclusion of their tribal war. Epitomizing the aspects of love, beauty, and even opulent objects, the goddess was often represented as the seeker of pleasure and the unknown. Focusing on the latter, Freya embodied the völva (or anglicized vala), the female seer of the Norse religion who had the ability to tinker with the seidr – magic pertaining to destiny and its ‘weaving’.

In essence, Freya had the ability to alter and manipulate one’s desire and fortune – and thus was often associated with the undiscernable attitudes of cats. Freya was also regarded among the Norse goddesses as the ruler of afterlife realm Folkvang, which allowed her to choose half of the warriors who were slain in battle (the other half were guided by the Valkyries to Valhalla – see the Bragi entry). All of these characteristics of a potent völva mirrors the historical scenario of the Germanic pantheon, especially during the Völkerwanderung or ‘Migration Period’ – circa 400-800 AD. In that regard, these tribal societies tended to favor two gods at the head of their pantheon symbolizing the chieftain warrior (who would lead them into battles and plunders) and his wife the prophetess (who would outline the future outcome of such military encounters by her magic). (https://www.realmofhistory.com/2018/01/29/12-norse-gods-goddesses-facts/)